pH Indicators (Litmus, Phenol Red, Universal Indicator)

Litmus

There are two types of Litmus Paper: Red and Blue. Red Litmus Paper turns blue when it is dipped in a solution of pH 8.3 or more (stronger alkalis), and Blue Litmus Paper turns red when dipped in a solution of pH 4.5 or less (stronger acids)

Phenol Red

Phenol Red turns yellow when it is dipped in a solution of pH 6.6 or less (stronger acids), and turns fuschia when dipped in a solution of pH 8.0 or more (stronger alkali)

Universal Indicator

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Evidence for Evolution

• Fossil Record
  • Shows Change
    • Simple –> Complex
    • Aquatic –> Terrestrial
  • Major “groups” evolving to others (fossils showing mid-change creatures)
    • Fish –> Amphibians
    • Reptiles –> Birds
• Comparative Anatomy (Homologous Structures)
  • Vertebrate forelimbs (pentadactyl limb – penta: five, dactyl: finger)
  • Similar pattern implies this structure has been inherited through a common ancestry in amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals
• Biochemistry
  • The longer the time since there was a common ancestor, the more mutation (differences in the base sequence/amino acid sequence) have accumulated.
• Biogeography
  • Ratites
    • Common ancestor across Gondwana
    • When Gondwana separated, the isolated populations evolved into different species (emu, ostrich, rhea, kiwi, cassowary)

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pH Reactions – Blowing into Water

When universal indicator is placed into water, it displays a pH of roughly 7. When one blows through a straw into the water, the pH drops to 6. This is because of the Carbon Dioxide the action of blowing into the water adds to the solution.

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Volta and Galvani

Volta

• Full name Count Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta
• Italian physicist, famous for the invention of the electric cell
• Invented the electrophorus, a device used to create static electricity
• Investigated the reaction of gases such as methane with an electric spark
• Named electric charges V and Q, and stated that in any given object they are proportionate
• Stated that a frog’s leg (the salty fluids within) was a conductor and detector of electricity

Galvani

• Full name Luigi Galvani
• Italian physicist
• Conducted the famous frog’s leg experiment, where he touched a frog’s leg with two pieces of metal, and observed it twitch
• His experiments led to the invention of the metallic arc
• Proposed (incorrectly) that electricity was the essence of life

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The Battle of Britain

Operation Sea Lion

• Was the German codename for the Invasion of Britain
• To consist of a channel crossing by small boats guarded by Luftwaffe (airforce)
• In reality this was not feasible as there were not enough craft (boats)
• Reliant on the Luftwaffe to smash Britain’s air force
• Due to the failure of the Germans to completely destroy the British at Dunkirk

The Luftwaffe

• A highly advanced air force with combat experience in the Spanish Civil War (1936-9)
• Excellent modern fighter air craft like the Me 109
• Large number of aircraft in its inventory but many were slow bombers without radar

The RAF

• Benefited from their development of the radar network
• Modern fighters like the Spitfire and the more numerous Hurricane
• Well organised defensive plan for air attack
• Reliance on other nationalities for pilot recruitment and training
• Not enough fighters and pilots

The RAF Commanders

• Air Chief Marshall Hugh Dowding
• Air Vice Marshall Keith Park
• Air Vice Marshall Leigh Mallory

The Luftwaffe Commanders

• Reichsmarshcall Herman Goering
• Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring
• Generalfeldmarschall  Hugo Sperll

RAF Fighter Control System

• For the time this was a very sophisticated integrated air defense system
• Utilising mordern technology in the form of radar
• Defensive sections with their own HQ and one central HQ co-ordinating the overall defense

Why the Germans Lost the Battle of Britain

• The Germans fought too far away from their bases so that refuelling and rearming were impossible. The German fighters had a very limited time they could spend over Britain
• British fighters could land, refuel and rearm quickly
• The change of targets was crucial; it is now believed that Fighter Command was only 24 hours away from defeat when the targets were changed from the airfields to London and Coventry
• The Hurricane and the Spitfire were exceptional planes – capable of taking on the Luftwaffe

Statistics

• 2 353 British pilots served
• 574 overseas pilots served for Britain
• 544 British pilots were killed
• 27 450 Civilians were killed
• 3 000 Luftwaffe personnel were killed
• 1 547 RAF planes were lost (1 023 fighters, 524 bombers)
• 1 887 Luftwaffe planes were lost (873 fighters, 1 014 bombers)

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5 Big Concepts on Gender

Concept 1

All men are the same sex, but they all express gender a little differently. In a group of men, there are as many different versions of gender as there are men.

Concept 2

Gender is learned. It is learned from parents, family, peers, the media and their education.

Concept 3

Gender can change – and can be adopted consciously or unconsciously by men and women. Sometimes people do what they see, and sometimes people decide not to do what they see.

Concept 4

Gender is not fixed in a person’s life. It can change quite radically based on personal experiences and beliefs.

Concept 5

Gender can be a way of achieving status, but it is culturally specific. What once seemed suitable and admirable may now seem silly or unadmirable.

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Rate of Reaction

• Different chemical reactions take place at different speeds
• Many, particularly those involving solutions, seem to take place instantaneously
• Others take rather longer; the conversion of plant material to coal can take millions of years
• As the reaction progresses, the concentration of the reactants decreases, and that of the products increases, but continuous measurements of concentration is not easy
• Quantities that can be measured without too much difficulty as the reaction proceeds include such things as the volume of gas given off, the change in mass when a gas is given off, and the change in intensity of a colour (of a reactant of the product)

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Causes for World War II

Treaty of Versailles

Left the Germans angry and bitter, eager for revenge. The Allies forced the Germans to accept heavy territorial losses, huge reparations, blame for the war and disarmament. Here was the basis for another war.

The League of Nations

Set up to keep world peace but was weak and ineffective. Japan’s invasion of Manchuria and Italy’s attack on Abyssinia showed the league as useless. The failure of the World Disarmament Conference, organised by the League, was also a grave disappointment.

The Great Depression

Shattered the prosperity and goodwill of the late 1920s. The Germans turned to Adolf Hitler who promised to turn over the Treaty of Versailles and make Germany great again. In Japan a government decided the answer to the depression was to expand overseas to Manchuria. Even Mussolini’s invasion of Abyssinia was in part an attempt to take the Italians’ minds away from there economic troubles.

Hitler

From the very beginning Hitler intended a major war. The moves into the Rhineland, Austria and Czechoslovakia were all steps in a plan to eventually invade Poland and Russia. In fact the whole of Germany was geared towards war.

Appeasement

A French force could have easily stopped German troops from marching into Rhineland in 1936. By giving in to Hitler, Britain and France encouraged him to demand more and more territory. When it came to Poland in 1939 Hitler was convinced Britain and France would once again give in. Chamberlain should have backed the Czechs at Munich. Czechoslovakia was militarily strong and would have proved a much more useful ally than did Poland in 1939.

The Transformation of Sydney

A Product of:

• Globalisation: The OPEC crisis of 1974 triggered a New International Division of Labour which resulted in many industries shifting offshore to low labour cost nations of Asia. This was accompanied by the deregulation of banking which allowed capital to flow freely around the world facilitating TNCs setting up branch plants for manufacturing overseas.
• Technological innovations in transport and communications, e.g: large ships, containerization,  computers
• Increasing environmental awareness requiring stricter control of pollution

Sydney, the Industrial City (Pre 1990s)

• Port function: the wharves, warehouses and rail lines of Port Jackson served to ship exports of commodities overseas (e.g: wool, sugar, wheat) and receive imports
• The industrial suburbs of the inner-western suburbs were the site for factories and power stations. Sugar was refined and was milled prior to exportation
• The inner-mixed zone was also home to the inner factory (blue collar) worker

Sydney the World City

• Regional offices for TNCs that operate in the Asia Pacific Region
• Centre for banking
• ASX links Australia to 24 hour trading
• Provision of advanced corporate services (e.g: accounting, advertising, auditing)
• Cultural authority (e.g: sport, entertainment, fashion, theatre)

Pathogens

Bacteria

• Prokaryotic (cells with no nucleus)
• Gram positive or gram negative (indicate different cell wall chemicals)
• Some produce toxins and secrete them (endotoxins) e.g: tetanus
• Others breed up in large numbers and when they die they release endotoxins
• Respond to antibiotics

Fungi

• Eucaryotic (have a nucleus)
• For example yeast, thrush, tinea, condidious, ringworm

Protozoa

• Eucaryotic (have a nucleus)
• Malaria is caused by a parasite called plasmodium

Disease

Anything which interferes with normal bodily function.

• Health: A state of physical, social and mental wellbeing.
• Infectious disease:
  • Caused by a pathogen
  • Can be caught
• Pathogen:
  • A disease causing organism
  • Parasitic (feed off and breed in a host)
  • Note that all parasites are not pathogen

Some diseases are caused by infectious agents (not organisms): e.g virus particles

http://i54.photobucket.com/albums/g88/ojrprobert/Disease.gif

Pyrmont-Ultimo / Darling Harbour

• Over the past 15 years, Pyrmont-Ultimo, along with the Darling Harbour Peninsula, has been transformed to a fashionable commercial and residential district.

• At the beginning of the 1990s, the area was delapidated and run down after the major industrial plants had closed to move to cheaper land. There were fewer than 900 residents and urban decay was obvious: abandoned/vandalized buildings etc.
• Today, redevelopment is obvious and the population is now 13 000, expected to increase to 20 000 by 2021.
• Old Industries:
  • Shipyards
  • Iron Foundries
  • Woolstores
  • Refining Mills
  • Coal Powered Stations
  • Quarries
  • Colonial Sugar Refinery (CSR)
• New Industries
  • Network 10
  • ABC
  • Nokia
  • Foxtel
  • Australis
  • Galaxy TV
  • Nova, 2SM, 2GB
  • Sydney TAFE
  • University of Technology
  • Powerhouse Museum
  • Star City
  • Various Hotels
• The older port facilities were progressively replaced by large, highly mechanized container terminals and bulk-loading facilities. This meant in Sydney that many port facilities moved from Port Jackson (Sydney Harbour) to Port Botany (Botany Bay). This meant that there was new space for Urban and Residential development.

Darling Harbour

• Commercial wharves were built in the early 1820s near the lower end of Market Street. Between 1850 and 1980 many private wharves were built along the foreshore of Darling Harbour.
• Darling Harbour proved a good site for a commercial wharf. It had good rail and water access, and it was close to the city.
• The depression in the 1890s resulted in the downturn of trading, as shipping movements decreased and wharves sat unused for weeks.
• The Government took control of the wharves in 1900 as the Bubonic Plague struck. This was the Sydney Harbour Trust Act. Under this act, the trust was given the power to take control of land near the waterfront.
• By 1920, Sydney Harbour was a world class harbour: vast wood stores, finger wharves and railway goods yards lined the Darling Harbour shores.

Pyrmont-Ultimo

• The first Pyrmont Bridge was completed in 1858. It was privately owned and people were charged a toll until the Government bought it in 1884. A new bridge was built in 1902, which is now a Darling Harbour Heritage Centrepoint.
• From 1902 to 1920 Pyrmont was transformed into one of Sydney;s central Industrial areas, including a power station, wharves, railway goods yards, a waste incinerator, wool stores, quarries and CSR (Colonial Sugar Refinery). Ultimo was a centre of clothing and footwear manufacturing.
• However, Pyrmont-Ultimo was becoming increasingly unnattractive to residents, and on one occasion 400 slums were cleared, leaving 1779 people homeless.
• The city markets were moved to Haymarket
• The area never really recovered from the 1920s Depression and World War II
• In 1951, ‘Pyrmont 13′ began its long career as a commercial wharf.

Non-Infectious Diseases

1) Genetic

• Huntington’s Disease – dominant allele
• Cystic Fibrosis – recessive allele
• Klinerfelter’s Disease – XXY
• Downe’s Syndrome – Extra Chromosome Z
• Turner’s Syndrome – XO

2) Environmental

e.g: Heavy Metal (Miramatta Disease)

Pasteur

Germ Theory

• Swan-necked flask experiment
  • Showed that broth (soup) will go off due to microbes in the air.
• Wine goes sour (vinegar) due to bacteria
• Yeast causes fermentation of wine (beer)
• Washing hands between handling silk worms prevents spread of disease.

Koch

Studied Anthrax in sheep

• Worked out a series of steps (postulates) by which a particular microbe can be linked to a specific disease
  • Isolate pathogen and grow in pure culture
  • Reinfect a susceptible host
  • Host must show same symptoms as original host
  • Isolate some microbes from second host

Judaism

The moshiach (Messiah) was supposed to be a great military leader, who would win battles for Israel. He would be a great judge, who would make righteous decisions. Jesus wasn’t their Messiah because he was God, he didn’t win battles for Israel, and he was not a great military leader. A man named Shimeon Ben Koshiba came close to being named the Messiah as he was charismatic, brilliant, and a brutal warlord. Practicing Jews don’t offer sacrifices anymore because their main temple has been replaced by a mosque.

Muslims in Australia

• The meaning of “Jihad” is not in fact “Holy War”, it is in fact a self defense against something – an exertion or struggle.
• The Five “Pillars of Islam” are:
  • Shahada – Pledge to Allah as one God
  • Salat – Prayers (5 Daily)
  • Zakat – Annual tax (2 1/2%) to be payed to poor (needy)
  • Saum – Total abistinance from foor, liquids, sex etc. for a period of time
  • Hajj – The pilgrimage to Mecca, once in a lifetime
• Profits of Islam include Muhammed, Adam, Noah, Jesus, Abraham and Moses.

What do Australians Believe In?

Nowadays:

• Less people follow religions
• There are more Catholics and less Anglicans

Christian statistics increased around both World War One and World War Two. More people have moved to the “no religion” category, because more people feel they can be honest, and social status is less linked to religion. There has also been an increase in the “other religion” category, due to the influx of Muslims into Australia.

The highest religious grouping is Catholicism, and this is because many ethnic people are of this religion, and they have many children. The groups that have grown the most are:

• Pentecostal | Advertising/Awareness
• Buddhism | Appeal as a peaceful religion
• Islam | Immigration
• No Religion | Religion not linked to other things any more

Outbreak

Everything I type in blue we do not know at this point in the movie.

We start with a battle scene in Vietnam. There’s a monkey watching the fighting, then we move to a village where everyone’s dying. The later Major General Donald McClintock (Donald Sutherland) and the later Brigadier General Billy Ford (Morgan Freeman) are sent to the village to investigate the virus. It came from people drinking the water in the village, and the pair leave. Then the village is firebombed by the US.

We then move to “Present Day”, where there are people in a village, much like the first one, dying. We see a monkey again. One of these monkeys is taken on a ship and cared for by an Asian guy, who dies of Motaba. The monkey is stolen by Jimbo Scott (Patrick Dempsey), and I’ll get to that later. Colonel Sam Daniels (Dustin Hoffman), Major Casey Schuler (Kevin Spacey) and Major Salt (Cuba Gooding Junior) are walking into the village. They go into a building where heaps of people are dying, and Salt panics. He pulls his helmet off, and Daniels looks freaked out. Then an African guy comes in and tells them it’s not airborne, so he’s OK.

Daniels finds that this is a virus called “Motaba”. It is much like the Ebola virus, but it kills people in only a few days. It is the same virus that was in the village during Vietnam. Jimbo Scott tries to sell the monkey at the pet store, but it scratches the other monkey and the shop-keeper, and spits in Jimbo’s mouth. The pet store owner and Jimbo later die. After the pet store, Jimbo releases the monkey into the wild, and then flies somewhere else, where he kisses his girlfriend, who later dies. This is where they first find the virus in the US. Daniels’ ex-wife Robby Keough (Rene Russo) is in charge of this operation, where they find that the victims’ organs have liquified. Somewhere during this segment of the film the virus becomes airborne.

Back with the pet store (which is in San Francisco), his blood is being tested when a dumb ass lab attendant sticks his fingers in the blood samples spinny thing and the blood goes right in his eyes. He gets infected. He is later sitting in a movie theatre when he coughs and the now airborne virus infects several other people. This all happens in Cedar Creek, which is quickly sectioned off by the army. This town becomes the equivalent of the Vietnam village.

McClintock and Ford then decide to use the serum (E-1101) they mapped from the first virus in Vietnam. This eludes to the fact that they were using this apparently incurable Motaba virus as a biological weapon. However, E-1101 doesn’t work. This is because it has now mutated to become airborne, so it’s a different strand of the virus. They take the E-1101 and give it to the pet shop monkey, and he gets better, so he has the non-airborne strand.

So now heaps of people are infected and dying so Daniels discovers that the virus is airborne, because E-1101 isn’t working. He goes on the ship which stole the monkey and finds in the dead seaman’s bunk a picture of the monkey. He goes on TV and tells people to look out for the monkey. Someone sees the monkey, and they find it and use a small child as bait to shoot the monkey with a tranquilizer dart.

They take the monkey and use it as a road map to get the serum to give all the sick people and their organs all magically unliquify. YAY!

I left out some stuff that wasn’t necessary for revision.

Questions: 

1. What causes the mutation?
2. Why does the monkey (host) have antibodies?
3. How did they synthesize a serum from the monkey?
4. Why hadn’t the virus mutated before?
5. Did the second monkey have both strains? Why did he get better?
6. Why don’t other animals get it?
7. Why did they want to bomb Cedar Creek?
8. How did the monkey get it in the first place?

Judaism

There’s a little story to go with this one: I wasn’t even going to do it, but I figured I could email Keith and the Girl about it, so I did, and they went crazy… But here’s what I got out of it:

JUDAISM

What is the opinion of Orthodox Jews on other religions?

“Just like every other religion, they hate them.” – Keith Malley

“We hate you.” – A Jew

What are the restrictions on Orthodox Jews in modern day life?

“Pig, lights, chicks, theirs a list on the Internet somewhere.” – Keith Malley

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud – (1856 – 1959)

• Considered the “father of psychoanalysis”

• An Austrian Neurologist and psychiatrist

• Best known for his theories of the unconscious mind

• Popularized ideas like the unconscious, “Freudian slips”, defence mechanisms and dream interpretations

• Theories are controversial and widely disputed

• Was Jewish

• It is thought that due to his intelligence, his parents favoured him over his siblings

 

Interpretations of Dreams

• Assigning meaning to experiences in dreams

• Dreaming – in many ancient stories – is considered to have supernatural meaning

• It is thought that the content of dreams displays the psyche – the soul or self – of the dreamer

• A major work relating to this topic is The Interpretation of Dreams by Sigmund Freud

• Freud proposed that conflict between one’s id (wants) and superego (conscience) caused dreams to be “censored”

• He proposed four concepts of censorship that had to be considered when drawing meanings from dreams:

  • Condensation – One dream represents several thoughts

  • Displacement – An objects importance is disguised as one that does not raise the dreamer’s suspicions

  • Representation – A thought is represented by images

  • Symbolism – A symbol represents a person, place, thought or thing

 

The Subconscious/Unconscious Mind

• A theory developed by Freud, which basically said:

  • The concious mind is only a thin part of the mind

  • The subconscious is an autonomic (automatic/natural) process of the mind

  • The concious mind is oblivious to the subconscious mind, but the subconscious mind can alter the decisions and actions of the concious mind

  • Between the conscious and unconscious minds lies the preconscious mind, which holds memories that can be easily accessed by the conscious mind

  • However, the unconscious mind can alter the information in this mind

Zyklon B

Zyklon B – Fact File

• Zyklon B is a cyanide-based insecticide.

• It was invented by Fritz Haber, a German Jew.

• It consists of hydrocyanic acid, which, when exposed to air, forms hydrogen cyanide.

• The chemical giant Degussa developed the technology to manufacture the chemical into crystals – as it was used in gas chambers.

• Zyklon B was used by the Nazis as a chemical weapon to poison the Jewish prisoners in the gas chambers in Auschwitz, the largest concentration camp.

• At other camps, exhaust fumes were used instead of the chemical.

• Zyklon B was initially used in the concentration camps as a chemical for delousing against typhus. This was produced with an odour, as a warning.

• However, the chemical used in the gas chambers did not have this warning odour.

• In January or February of 1940, 250 Gypsy children from Brno in the Buchenwald concentration camp were used as guinea pigs for the chemical.

• On the 3^rd of September 1941, 600 Soviet PoWs and and 250 sick Polish prisoners were killed using the chemical.

• This was the first test of gas chambers in Auschwitz.

• Zyklon B is still used in the Czech Republic as a delousing agent, under the name Uragan D2.